The Science-Based Dog Training Handbook: Positive Reinforcement from Puppy to Adult

Key takeaways

• The American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior (AVSAB) recommends that only reward-based methods are used for all dog training, including behavior problems, and says there is no evidence that aversive methods work better ¹.
• Reviews and studies link aversive methods (shock, prong or choke collars, leash jerks, shouting, physical corrections) with more stress and more behavior problems, and have not found them more effective ^2,3,4.
• Training works best when you reward the behavior you want, quickly, and make it easy for your dog to be right. Most “bad” behavior is a normal dog behavior at the wrong time or place, or a skill the dog has not been taught.
• A well-timed marker (a clicker or a word like “yes”) helps your dog understand exactly what earned the reward, but the evidence does not show that a clicker beats a well-timed word ⁶.
• Short, frequent sessions beat long ones. Build skills in easy settings, then add duration, distance and distractions gradually.
• Some problems, such as aggression, severe fear and separation anxiety, need help from your vet and a qualified behavior professional, not a DIY approach.

Why method matters: what the evidence says

Everyone who trains a dog uses principles of learning, whether or not they realize it. The question is whether to rely on rewards (adding something the dog likes when it does what you want) or aversives (using pain, fear, startle or intimidation to stop what you don’t want).

The position of veterinary behaviorists

In 2021 the AVSAB published a position statement saying that, based on current scientific evidence, only reward-based training methods should be used for all dog training, including for treating behavior problems, with no exceptions for aggressive dogs ¹. It names aversive methods such as prong collars, electronic shock collars, shake cans, shouting, alpha rolls and leash jerks ¹.

What the studies found

• A 2017 literature review of 17 studies concluded that there is no evidence that aversive methods are more effective than reward-based ones, that aversive methods were associated with more reported behavior problems, and that they can compromise both the physical and mental welfare of dogs. The review also noted limitations such as small samples and possible bias in observational studies ².
• A 2020 study in PLoS ONE compared 92 companion dogs from reward-based, mixed and highly aversive training schools. Dogs from the highly aversive schools showed more stress-related behavior during training, spent more time in tense or low states, and had larger increases in a stress hormone (cortisol) afterwards. They also performed more “pessimistically” in a test of mood outside training ³. Because schools, not dogs, were assigned to groups, and the sample came from a small number of schools, the study shows an association, not proof of cause ³.
• A 2014 UK study on electronic collars found that dogs trained with shock collars showed signs of pain or aversion and higher stress hormone levels, and that the collars did not produce a substantially better recall than training without them by similarly experienced trainers ⁴.

What this means in practice

Reward-based training has good evidence for being at least as effective, and it avoids the welfare costs the other studies describe. It also builds a dog who wants to work with you. Aversive methods can suppress behavior without teaching what to do instead, and they can create fear and anxiety that cause new problems.

The evidence is not perfect. Many studies are observational, and the quality varies. But the direction is consistent across studies and across professional bodies, and the downside of trying a reward-based approach is small.

The basics of how dogs learn

You do not need a degree in psychology, but a few principles explain almost everything in this handbook.

1. Behavior that is rewarded happens more often. A “reward” is anything your dog wants at that moment: a treat, a toy, praise, a game, a chance to sniff, the door opening for a walk.
2. Timing is everything. Dogs link the reward to what they were doing at that moment. A reward a few seconds late can reinforce something else entirely.
3. Make it easy to succeed. Set the dog up so the right behavior is the obvious choice, and manage the environment so the wrong behavior cannot be practiced and rewarded.
4. Practice builds habits, in both directions. Every time a dog rehearses an unwanted behavior, such as jumping up or pulling, and gets what it wants, that behavior gets stronger.
5. Dogs do not generalize easily. A dog who sits perfectly in the kitchen may seem to forget in the park. It has not learned to “sit anywhere” yet.
6. Emotion matters. A dog who is afraid, over-excited or in pain cannot learn well. Keep sessions positive.

The training toolkit

Rewards

Find out what your dog finds most valuable. Small, soft, smelly treats work for many dogs. Others prefer a toy, a game of tug or a chance to sniff. Use better rewards for harder tasks (distractions, new places). Take the treats from your dog’s daily food allowance, so training does not lead to weight gain (see our nutrition guide).

A marker

A marker is a short signal that tells the dog “that is exactly what I wanted, and a reward is coming.” It can be a clicker or a short word such as “yes”. Pick one signal and always follow it with a reward. Markers help because they pinpoint the moment of success even when you cannot deliver the treat instantly.

Is a clicker better than a word? The best-controlled study I found, in a group of dogs learning a simple task, found no difference in learning speed between click-plus-food and food alone, although the clicker group continued the behavior longer when rewards stopped ⁶. Other small studies disagree. The practical conclusion is that precise timing matters more than the tool, so use whichever you can deliver consistently.

Equipment

• A well-fitted harness or a flat collar, and a standard lead of about 1.5 to 2 metres. Avoid retractable leads for training.
• A treat pouch or pocket for fast delivery.
• Avoid prong collars, choke chains and electronic collars. They are aversive tools, and veterinary behaviorists advise against them ¹.
• A crate or pen, introduced gradually, can help with house training and safety if your dog learns to like it.

Setting up sessions

• Keep sessions short (a few minutes) and end while your dog is still keen.
• Train before meals, when the dog is a bit hungry, and in a calm, quiet place at first.
• Aim for many successes. If your dog keeps failing, make the task easier.
• Keep your own mood relaxed. If you are frustrated, take a break.

Three ways to teach a behavior

1. Luring. Use a treat to guide the dog into position. For a sit, move the treat over the nose and slightly back, so the head goes up and the bottom goes down. Mark and reward when the position happens. Then fade the lure by using an empty hand, and add the cue word once the behavior is reliable.
2. Capturing. Wait for the behavior to happen naturally, then mark and reward it. This works well for things dogs do anyway, such as lying down, looking at you or settling on a mat.
3. Shaping. Reward tiny steps toward a more complex behavior, gradually raising what you ask for. Shaping encourages dogs to think and offer behavior.

Add the cue last. Say the word only once the dog performs the behavior reliably, so the word means something.

The core skills

1. Name recognition and attention

Say your dog’s name in a happy voice. When it looks at you, mark and reward. Repeat in different places. This gives you a way to get attention before you ask for anything else. Never use your dog’s name to scold.

2. Sit, down and stand

Teach each by luring or capturing, add a cue word once the behavior is reliable, and reward. Practice in different rooms, and then outside.

3. Stay (duration, distance, distraction)

Teach the dog to hold a position. Begin with a second or two, mark and reward while it is still in position, then release with a cue like “free”. Increase the duration gradually, then the distance, then the distractions, changing only one at a time. If the dog breaks the stay, you have asked for too much; go back a step. This “one thing at a time” idea applies to every skill.

4. Recall (come when called)

A reliable recall is one of the most important skills, and it can save a dog’s life.

• Choose a special cue word that you use only for recall, and a very high-value reward.
• Start close, indoors, and call in a happy voice. Reward generously when the dog arrives.
• Make coming to you always pay. Never call your dog to end the fun or to do something it dislikes, and never scold a dog who has come to you, however long it took.
• Practice on a long line in safe outdoor areas before off-lead freedom, and add distractions slowly.
• Practice “recall games,” such as running away so the dog chases you, and rewarding when it catches up.

Recall is a long project. Do not let your dog off-lead in unsafe areas until it is truly reliable, and remember that reliability varies by dog, breed and distraction level.

5. Loose-lead walking

Pulling works for the dog because it gets there faster, so make pulling stop working.

• Reward your dog for being next to you, at your side, with a slack lead.
• If the lead goes tight, stop moving, wait for the lead to slacken (or call your dog back to you), then reward and carry on. Going forward only happens on a loose lead.
• Practice in low-distraction places first. Use a harness, and use sniffing breaks as a reward.
• Be patient. Many dogs take weeks to months to walk nicely in exciting places.

6. Leave it and drop it

Teach “leave it” by showing a treat in your closed hand, waiting until the dog stops trying to get it, then marking and rewarding with a different treat. Build up to leaving items on the floor. Teach “drop it” by trading: offer a better treat in exchange for the item, then give the item back when it is safe to do so. Trading teaches dogs that giving things up is a good deal, which reduces guarding.

7. Settle on a mat

Teaching a dog to relax on a mat is a useful life skill. Reward calm behavior on the mat, such as lying down, for gradually longer periods, and use it at cafés, vets and visitors’ arrival.

8. Handling and husbandry

Teach your dog to accept touching of paws, ears, mouth and body, and to cooperate with nail trims, brushing and vet exams. Go slowly, pair touch with treats, and stop if the dog shows stress.

Puppies: the first months

Socialization

The first three months are the most important window for socialization, and puppies can start well-run classes from about seven to eight weeks, before the vaccine series is finished, with sensible precautions such as avoiding dog parks and places where dogs of unknown health gather ⁷. The goal is positive exposure to people, other dogs, surfaces, sounds, handling and everyday objects. Keep experiences gentle, and let the puppy move away if it is worried. See our guide to dog health for how this fits with vaccines.

House training

• Take your puppy out frequently, especially after sleeping, eating, drinking and playing.
• Go to the same spot and reward immediately after the puppy goes.
• Supervise indoors, or use a crate or pen when you cannot watch.
• If there is an accident, clean it up with an enzymatic cleaner and do not punish. Punishment teaches puppies to hide, not to go outside.
• Expect it to take weeks to months, and remember that very young puppies have limited bladder control.

Mouthing and biting

Puppies explore with their mouths. Redirect to appropriate chews and toys, reward gentle behavior, and pause play when teeth touch skin so the puppy learns that biting ends the fun. Make sure your puppy gets enough sleep and exercise, because overtired puppies bite more.

Adolescents and adults

Adolescence

Between roughly six months and two years (the exact age varies by breed and size), many dogs seem to “forget” their training, test boundaries and become more distractible. This is normal. Keep training, go back to easier steps, manage the environment, and keep rewarding good choices.

Adult dogs

Adult dogs, including adopted ones, can learn at any age. Start with the basics, go slowly, and give a newly adopted dog time to settle before expecting much. Training is also good mental exercise (see our guide to exercise and mental stimulation).

Common problems and reward-based solutions

Jumping up. Dogs jump to get attention. Ignore it (turn away, stay quiet), and reward the moment all four paws are on the floor. Teach an alternative, such as sitting to greet. Ask visitors to do the same.

Barking. First work out why: boredom, fear, alerting or excitement. Meet the need (exercise, enrichment), manage triggers, and teach and reward quiet. Do not shout, which many dogs interpret as joining in.

Chewing. Give plenty of appropriate chews, put valuable items out of reach, and supervise young dogs. Destructive chewing in an adult can signal boredom or anxiety.

Pulling, lunging and reactivity. Dogs who bark or lunge at other dogs or people are often afraid or frustrated. Increase distance from the trigger, reward calm behavior, and consult a qualified behavior professional. Punishing a reactive dog commonly makes it worse.

Separation anxiety. A dog who panics when left alone is distressed, not being spiteful. A veterinary review found that gradual behavior modification, using desensitization and counter-conditioning to build tolerance of absence, is the most successful approach, sometimes supported by medication in early stages ⁵. Punishment is widely considered counterproductive for anxiety-driven problems. See your vet and, if needed, a veterinary behaviorist.

Resource guarding and aggression. These are risk situations. Do not try to fix them with confrontation. Contact your vet, who can rule out pain and refer you to a veterinary behaviorist or a qualified, reward-based trainer.

When something is not a training problem

Sudden changes in behavior, such as new aggression, house-soiling, restlessness or fearfulness, can be caused by pain, illness or age-related changes in the brain. Always have your vet examine your dog before assuming it is a training issue. Chronic pain from arthritis or dental disease commonly looks like “stubbornness”.

Choosing a trainer or class

Anyone can call themselves a dog trainer, and the profession is not tightly regulated in many places. When you look for help:

• Ask what methods they use. Look for a trainer who uses reward-based methods and will not use shock, prong or choke collars, or physical corrections ¹.
• Watch a class before signing up. Dogs and people should look relaxed and engaged.
• Ask about qualifications and ongoing education, and whether they work with your vet when needed.
• For serious behavior problems, ask your vet about a referral to a board-certified veterinary behaviorist. The American College of Veterinary Behaviorists keeps a directory.
• Be wary of trainers who guarantee results, promise a “quick fix” or blame the dog’s “dominance”.

Questions to ask your vet or behavior professional

1. Could pain or illness be contributing to my dog’s behavior?
2. Is this normal for my dog’s age, or do we need a behavior referral?
3. How can I safely socialize my puppy given vaccines and local risks?
4. Which equipment is best for my dog, and what should I avoid?
5. Would medication or a behavior plan help with my dog’s anxiety?

FAQ

Is positive reinforcement just bribery? No. Rewards are used to teach, then faded to a pattern that keeps the behavior going. Dogs also work for life rewards, such as a walk or a game.

Do I need to carry treats forever? You will use treats heavily while teaching, then use them less often and more unpredictably, along with other rewards. A behavior that is rewarded only sometimes tends to be more durable.

What if my dog does not respond to treats? Try different rewards and settings, train before meals, and check the environment for distractions. A lack of interest in food can also signal stress or illness, so check with your vet if it is sudden.

Are shock or prong collars ever necessary? AVSAB says no: reward-based methods should be used for all dogs, including those with behavior problems ¹. Studies of e-collars have not shown a clear advantage for recall and have shown signs of stress ⁴.

Is it too late to train an older dog? No. Older dogs can learn new skills, and training is good mental exercise.

How long will it take? It depends on the dog, the skill and how consistent you are. Simple skills can come quickly, but reliability in distracting places takes weeks or months, and some skills, such as recall and loose-lead walking, take longer.